Literature During Eighteenth Century in India

Literature During Eighteenth Century in India!

Concept of Literature:

The eighteenth century India saw the gravest political instability which threw the urban life in chaos. Taking advantage of this chaos, East India Company established its own authority. The Company being mainly interested in dividends, tempered by the British industrial interests, the economic soundness of the country also withered away.

Thus, there was no hope of leisure in that period full of chaos, convulsion and misery. As Prof. Ghoshal has said, in such an environment arts and literature were bound to suffer. It was only the Marathas and the Rajputs who had left with some capacity to extend patronage to learning and vernacular literature.

It has often been seen that when any society is subjected to tyranny of unscrupulous and greedy masters, it has tried to escape into the coffers of religion. It so happened in the eighteenth century. In Bengal which saw the height of English unscrupulousness, we find numerous poets composing Vaishnava padavalis.

They had no sense of poetic enlightenment. Rather, the literature and poetry, as R.K. Mookerjee has pointed out, “show coarseness and even vulgarity, an evidence of the demoralising, nay poisoning, influence of decadent Muslim and Hindu courts on the enlightened mind in the cities.” But there were still the learned who possessed this gifted art and withstood the darkest period in the chequered annals of India.

Among them, Bharat Chandra Roy (1713-1761) is towering personality. He is compared with respectable British poets like Alexander Pope and Dryden. Well read in Sanskrit and Persian, he was the most influential poet of Bengali. His Vidyasundar (1753) does not need any other proof to establish his superiority. Besides, he had been author of Ananda Mangal, Annapurna Mangal, Satyanarayana Lanchali and others.

He belonged to the Tantrik tradition of Bengal. The second tradition was that of the vaishnavas. The Tantrik tradition was the exponent of worship of the mother Goddess against God of Vaishnava tradition. This religion-dominated poetry was the only avenue soothing to the suffering people. Along with it, the romantic tradition had also been keeping its place.

Another significant contribution in the Indian literature was the entry of prose. The Missions translated the Bible to popularise Christianity. The religious leaders of the Indian society translated their religious books in vernacular to counteract the missionary on­slaught on their religion.

Introduction of printing press increased the volumes and therefore the literature had started coming within the reach of the poor which was earlier the preserve of the rich only. For its extra caution about non-interfer­ence, the encouragement given by the Company to indigenous educa­tional institutions also brought a phenomenal growth in vernacular literature.

Mystics and Saints:

The above trend was dominant in other parts as well. In those areas like Delhi and Punjab where the indi­genous rulers were still in power, the literature had touched the prevailing pulse. The people had gone into spiritual gust.

The teachings of great mystics, saints and reformers formed the literature of those regions as well. Their literature falls more in the romantic tradition. Sayings of Yari Sahib (1668-1725) whose disciples domina­ted the eighteenth century literature are quite revealing. He said, “The creation is a painting of the creator on the canvas of void with the brush of love”.

He who has not experienced this joy through love will never know it through reasoning. Men and women are as bubbles on the ocean of Divine love.” His disciples followed this tradition and contributed richly to the literature.

Another tradition was called Kabir-panthi who had been emphasising on secularism, equality and simplicity. That line was also dominant in this century. One of his disciple, Jagjivandas (1682), a Thakur was a famous author of Avadhi Hindi works. He sincerely pursued the path shown by his Guru. Kabir.

The following verse is a specimen of numerous verses written by Jagjivan Dass:

O saint, the one light shines in all.

Think it over in your mind, there is no second.

The blood and the body are same, there is no

Brahman or saint;

Some are called men and some women

The invisible Purusha in all.

The society had also been influenced by the missionary teach­ings. But the toleration of Hinduism had not lost its ground so far. It is clear from the literature of this age. Pran Natha (1700-1750), for example, emphasised the unity of Hindus, Muslims and Christians.

Though versed in Christian style, the following saying of Pran Natha reflects the spirit of toleration:

Now, tell I of Love, which is God Himself

and beyond words

God’s creation is a fraction of God, but

it is the deep-set eternal joy.

This tradition was rather extensive. Gharibdas (1717-1778) of Rohtak worshipped Rama, Hari and Allah together. Besides, he adopted words from Persian and English also in his verses. The society had also started thinking that the casteism was the cause of their ruin and foreign domination.

Since the times of Kabir and Guru Nanak, the saints were echoing the general will and they con­demned this social inequality in strong words. This was gaining ground and had posed a challenge to the upper caste. Paltudas (1757-1825), the second Kabir, was prosecuted by the Bhairagis who resented his strong condemnation of caste and sect differences.

The following verse of him reminds of the Kabir tradition in this age:

They say Rama is the east, the Khuda is the west.

Who then lives in the north and the south?

Where is the Lord, and where is He not?

Why do the Hindus and Muslims raise a storm?

The Hindus and Muslims have engaged in struggle—

And the two faiths run into two opposing camps,

Paltoo the slave says, the Lord is in

all, He is not divided at all, this is the truth.

English Influence:

We have seen from the above quotations that at the dawn of the eighteenth century the literature reflected the desire of toleration and indiscrimination. In the middle of the century the society came under the height of tyranny and the people were put to great miseries. Nazir’s Kulliyat reflects the ruin of urban life. The people, as started earlier, had left with no course but religious shields.

Therefore, the literature became more religious; though at the same time it was further emphasising the thought of the schools of Sufism, Cults, Romance which had gained ground the downfall of the Sultanate and that phase of political instability.

Then, we find the influence of the missionaries and the literature reflects upon the efforts to being about reconciliation. English people had started influencing the vernacular literature ; and we have seen how Gharibdas’s verses contained English words as well.

As discussed earlier the Charter Act of 1813 had opened the gate of Indian schools for the spread of European literature and English language. Though the advocates had thought and sought that people taught the European literature would be “faithful”, trust­worthy for assigning important jobs, but the European literature had influenced the reasoning of the pupils.

The literature of the French Revolution of 1789 taught them equality, liberty and fraternity. Locke had taught them the value of liberalisms, the virtues of democracy; Edmund Burke filled them with courage to defeat oppression; the Englishmen’s quest for “freedom” had taught them the strength of the united movement. Having learnt English language, the imperial Government could not keep a steel curtain over their books. This impact of English and western knowledge had two characteristic features—patriotic feelings and expressions of national sentiment and humanism.

The literature of the century was affected by this socio-political change and moved on new directions. Though the Company Administrations’ encouragement to classical education offered thriving literature out of Sanskrit, but the authors produced by the English schools had got the eyes of educated and ambitious people.

Writers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Akshoy Kumar Dutta, Ishwar- chandra Vidyasagar who mastered both classical and English knowledge became more influential in the society.

The literature produced in that age was marked by ideological conflict, cross- current, and contradictions. It developed some kind of inconsistency and hesitancy—which we can see in the literature of early nineteenth century.

But after Macaulay’s unequivocal support to English— though tempered by the pro-classists in the beginning—brought about a clarity regarding European literature. It may be mentioned here that the Company had employed different pressure groups of the society against the Nawabs in capturing the power. In this way they had politicized the people.

The aftermaths of this Politicization in conjunction with European literature brought about a drastic change in the thinking’ of the people and writers.

Therefore, S.K. Dey points out that “literary movements in Bengal (and elsewhere as the English influence expanded) had perforce been closely bound up with political, social, religious and other movements….Every great writer of this period of transition was of necessity a politician, a social reformer or a religious enthusiast.”

The national hymn “Bande Mataram” by Bankim Chandra (1834-1886) is containing the spirit of the literature of that age:

Mother, I bow to thee

Rich with thy hurrying streams:

Bright with thy orchard gleams,

God with the winds of delight,

Dark fields waving, Mother of night

Mother Free,

Glory of moonlight dreams,

Over thy branches and lordly streams,

Clad in the blossoming trees,

Mother, giver of ease,

Laughing, low and sweet.

Thou art wisdom, thou art law,

Thou our heart, our soul, our breath,

Thou the love device, the awe,

In our hearts that conquers death,

Thine the strength that nerves the arm,

Thine the beauty, mine the charm,

Every image made divine,

In our temple is but thine.

Literature in Prose:

From ancient times, the literature in India was dominated by poetry. Writing in prose was taken out of practical necessity and consequently it was found that by nature prose was educative, polemical and propagandist. Since the missions as well as the Administration wanted to convert people to be faithful, they adopted this form of literature.

The pioneering steep was taken in Bengali prose literature. It was carried on by the Serampore missionaries for spreading Christianity. The pundits of the Fort William College also produced prose literature out of their epics to counteract the assault of the missions. As a result, the prose found a respectable place in literature and rather reached beyond the limits of poetry in spreading the desired aims.

The Indians entered in prose writing in a big way. It was done under the Company policy of encouraging classical education. With this aim the Fort William College was founded in 1800 to cultivate both Sanskrit and Bengali under Professor Carey. He was assisted by many renowned pundits. These pundits published a large number of books to rejenuvate classical knowledge among the young trainees.

They were the centre of great attraction till 1814. They published stories and legends, history and philosophy books. These books tried to depict the human beings’ life. Ramram Bose, author of Raja Pratapadpaditya Charitra (1801), was perhaps the “first Bengali prose-writer who attempted to write history in the sense in which it is taken today.” These books were, however, written to increase the prestige of the missionaries and the British.

They did not inspire national sentiment. In this way, the British tried to mould the literature to sub-serve their imperial interests as well as to preserve the orthodox institutions. They were, however, not unchallenged to propagate their philosophy.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy entered the arena to purge the society of superstitions and ignorance. He found the School Book Society and Hindu College (1817). The Raja was not a literary man. He took to writings to explain his social and religious ideas and to expose the orthodoxy. With this aim he resorted to translations of shastras; interpretation or exposition of these shastras; and debates or polemical writings. He was a great satirist but void of wit or humour.

Always adhering to reason, his writings were successful in creating “such stir, movement or agitation of thought among the people” in which his predecessors or contempory failed.

With all dominance of their respective ideologies, it can-be said that literature had adopted human beings in place of super-human or gods. There­fore, the Indian literature had entered that age where words were going to play that role which was played by the swords in medieval times. This approach later on entered the literature in different languages of India. The dons of Fort William College produced Hindi prose-works in Khari boli and also Urdu prose.

After going through the age of conflict and substitution of cultures and institu­tions “prose” also entered the nationalist age and the authors started reviving the past and delienated the glories of Hindu heroism against foreign tyranny.

In this field Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894) is conspicuous by his writings. His novels exercised the most stimulating influence on all Indian literature. It continued to write about human beings and their problems. The trend in Bengali prose literature later on spread to other vernacular languages.

Novels:

The modern literature also opened new directions in the novels. In Bengal, it was started by Peraychand Mitra. He wrote Alabi Gharer Dulal (1858) in colloquial language in the pen- name of Tekchand Thakur. It was, perhaps, the first full-fledged Bengali novel which broke the past traditions.

Earlier, the novels used to be romantic tales. It was the first attempt to air his views on real family life and successfully exposed and ridiculed social evils.

It also contained suggestions for the advancement of the society. The opponent of the progressive ideas did not lag behind. In this way, novel also became a vehicle for debates on social reforms and contained description of true social life. It was this tradition which sooner or later spread in vernacular literature of different parts of the country. Munshi Prem Chand made its debut on Hindi litera­ture on this line of thinking.

Plays:

The writers in Bengal also advanced into play writing. Dinbandhu Mitra (1828-1873) was the outstanding literary figure in this field. His famous drama, the Neet Darpan was published in 1860. It touched upon the current problems faced by the labourers in indigo plants.

As referred to in the Press, there was a popular indignation against the brutal tyranny of the indigo planters. Writing a drama on the severest social problem was a new opening which went in a big way. His effort left influence upon other writers not only in Bengali literature but also in other vernacular literature.

In this way, we see that the literature, rather for the first time, marched with social advancement and therefore earned the status of modern literature. This trend was significantly clear everywhere in India.

Swami Dayananda was the pioneer of a vigorous prose style in Hindi. He also used the prose to spread his teachings for which he had founded Arya Samaj. This trend was enriched by other writers like Raja Siva Prasad, Raja Lakshman Singh, Bhartendu Harish Chandra (1868). Kishorilal Goswami revived the tendency of. dealing with mythological themes.

Urdu developed along with Hindi in the northern India. It was favoured by a large number of poets of, talent in all the religious and sects. Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Altaf Husain, Maulvi Nazir Ahmad, Khwaja Hasan Nizami were the makers of Urdu prose.

They endeavoured to harmonize the Persian outlook, spirit and thought dominant in the era of Muslim rule with the speech and dialects of Hindustan. The Urdu literature was not left unaffected by the trends in the society. It also took full note of the requirements of the Muslims in the changing society.

Literature in South India:

South had already taken a lead over North in prose. Virama Muni (1680—1742) was the father of Tamil prose, and Tamil literature also passed through all those phases described in Bengali literature. Likewise, Telugu prose was developed by Christian missionaries from about 1800 onward.

Later on Raja Ram Mohan Roy also influenced the minds of writers. K. Veersalmgam published his first Telugu novel and drama, in 1878, in which he vigorously pleaded for social reform. However, “both Tamil and Telugu writers while they strike a modern note both in the, direction of picturing social life with all its simplicity, beauty as well as its malaise and materialism and of glorifying the native land, have not lost their moorings in their great classics, that are perennial sources of inspiration.” 

The above literary progress reveals that the spread of European literature had effects on the creative mind. It gave inspiration to all in spite of their varied thought. It was this development which brought literature down to earth.

The creative mind now started writing about the society in which he was living. As we have seen when the society was degenerating into the nineteenth century the creative mind was escaping into religious shield. But as the British activities created a middle class—as a counterpart of European bourgeoisie—it certainly thought about their own position.

They started writing keeping with their own requirements. Those who thought reforms were for their better future held “progressive” views and those who thought that the “progress”‘ would affect them held “reactionary” views. With this preconception, they utilized their skill in contributing to the modern literature. The words were replacing swords and therefore the “elite” had to establish their strength by creating their own ideology.

It is for this reason that R.K. Mukerjee observes that:

“On the whole, modern Indian literatures have been the hand­maids of the middle class, due both to its western inspiration and outlook and the cleavage between the elite and the masses, as a result of widespread illiteracy. The bourgeois character of modes and themes of modern Indian fiction is too evident. The self-complacence, tawdry sentimentalism and social inertia of the gentry (Bhadralok) are the bones of Indian novels, not even excluding the masterpieces that too easily uphold the current morals and conventional values and too often introduce working class men and women as parrots of bour­geois notions and a human deformities eliciting insidious mirth. Simi­larly, the pseudo-mystical predilection and vagueness, so obviously unreal in contemporary life and representing an escapist attitude, is yet an established pose with many Indian poets.”

However, the society had got transformed, and it was not going to come back in the medieval age. New ideas, new environments had set in new problems. The advancement or more precisely speaking individualism had set in the “struggle for survival”. In that competition, the new emerging classes had to make their way by adopting those very methods by which the “elite” had come in prominence.

The literature was indeed contributing its own work in making a better living for them in society.

Therefore, Mukerjee said that “promising trends towards the creation of new values and patterns of expression are on the horizon. Modern fiction in the writings of Sarat Chandra Chatterjee, Prem Chand and Tara Sankara Banerji is neither sentimental nor didactic but psychological and imaginative and is impregnated with the consciousness of the common and the forgotten man.”