In this essay we will discuss about ‘Social Reform Movements in India’:- 1. Socio-Religious Conditions 2. British Policy Towards Social and Cultural Affairs 3. Raja Ram Mohan Roy 4. Crusade against Orthodoxy 5. Revival and Progress of Brahmo Samaj 6. Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj 7. Arya Samaj 8. Rama Krishna Mission 9. Theosophical Society 10. Radha Swami Satsang and Other Details.
Essay Contents:
- Socio-Religious Conditions
- British Policy Towards Social and Cultural Affairs
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy
- Crusade against Orthodoxy
- 5. Revival and Progress of Brahmo Samaj
- Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj
- Arya Samaj
- Rama Krishna Mission
- Theosophical Society
- Radha Swami Satsang
- Religious and Social Movements of the Muslims
- Movements Amongst Other Sects
- Abolition of Slavery
- Emancipation of Women
- Prevention of Female Infanticide
- Abolition of Sati
- Upliftment of the Depressed Classes
1. Socio-Religious Conditions:
Religion has played a very important role in the Indian society. It was not only the base of the Hindu society even after the rule of Islam for more than seven hundred years, it was still the regulation of the Indian life. Idolatry, caste system and religious bigotry had become so rigid that the reformist movements such as Buddhism and Jainism had also been affected much by these religious taboos.
The Hindu society was, however, at a low ebb. One follower of Raja Ram Mohan Roy who started a crusade against religions and social abuses described the socio-religious conditions in those times as under.
At the time when Ram Mohan came to Calcutta, the whole of Bengal was steeped in ignorance; the country was over-flooded with the rituals of idolatry. People here did not appreciate either the duties inculcated in the Vedas (Karma Kanda) or higher philosophy (Brahman) of the Upanishads; but the festivities in which they used to find pleasure were the sacrifice of animals on the occasion of the worship of Durga, the pastoral songs connected with the ‘Nandotsav’ (mainly dealing with the birth of Krishna), the sprinkling of colour at the time of Holi, the crowds at the pulling of carts at ‘Rath Jatra’ and similar things.
People strongly believed that they could escape from the punishment of sin, purify themselves and earn religious merit by bathing in the Ganges, offering money to the Brahmans and Vaishnavas, going on pilgrimage to the sacred places and by keeping fast. Their religious scruples were mainly confined to the rigid rules in matter of food; the purity of heart depended upon the nature of the food.
The Brahmins who accepted services under the English used to make particular efforts to maintain their superiority and caste privileges. After finishing their business in the office, when they went home in the evening they would first bathe with a view to be cleaned of the impurities by coming in contact with the Mlechhas, offer their regular daily sandhya mantras and then take their food in the eighth part of the day….
The Brahmins, in those days were the newspapers, after bathing in the Ganges early in the morning they would go from door to door with their Kosas Kusi (long copper spoons) in their hands and would spread all sorts of news. People used to distribute their gifts to escape from bad name, and sometimes to get renown although they knew that the Brahmins receiving gifts were in most cases ignorant of the shastras.
The influence of the Brahmins over the rich sudras was immense. They used to earn lots of money sometimes by blessing the sudras with consecrated water touched by their feet or the dust of their feet. The learned Brahmins of those days paid more attention to the study of Nyaya and Smritis and their position were so ignorant of their original authority—the Vedas, that most of them did not know the meaning of the mantras, they repeated thrice a day.
There were some books in poetry such as ‘Chaitanya Charistamrita’, Chandi or Kavi Kankan, Anand Mangal and Vidya Sunder of Bharat Chandra, but the books in prose were very few. Of the chief amusements of the youth of Calcutta, were the fights of the bulbuls. and kites and Krishnayatra, musical composition of the Kavis.
But they were happily free from the drink evil; they were not yet contaminated by the evils of the European civilization. On the occasion of the Puja, the rich used to invite to dinner the Englishmen and women but did not dine with them. They were not willing to give up idolatry, but were willing to introduce some changes in their manners and customs.
This kind of religious hypocrisy and ignorance and corruption was rampant in all the religious places with a few exceptions. Next to it, the society had perpetrated, all kinds of abuses on the better half of the society.
Child marriage, suttee, and polygamy were sign of respectability to the kulins but the women-folk had been “a tissue of ceaseless oppressions and miseries, while as the crowning horror, the flames of the suttee were lighted with almost incredible frequency even in the immediate vicinity of Calcutta”.
Purdah had condemned to a life-long prison and seclusion had kept them ignorant of the knowledge. The lower layer of the society viz. Sudra was segregated. It was not segregated like the Africans in South Africa under the system of apartheid.
Rather it was worst since they were untouchable and therefore were debarred both from the schooling as well as public amenities. All this was because of the decadence of educational system. The following observation in the Calcutta Review (1845) was the specimen of the countryside.
So effectually has the cruel and demoralising superstition of Hindus extinguished the religious feelings of their nature, and prevented their ideas of the very fundamentals of divine worship, that they never think of worshipping their God except by means of unintelligible and unmeaning mantras.
These mantras, which they have been taught to articulate without comprehending their import, are considered to be a passport to heaven. Such lip deep and mechanical devotion is a mockery of worship and a downright insult to him, who is to be loved with all the heart and with all the understanding and with all the sound and with all the strength.
2. British Policy Towards Social and Cultural Affairs:
The British successfully adapted the economic activities to the metropolitan interests. They had brought about the ruin of industry in order that the British industry could have much needed raw materials vis-a-vis a market for the consumption of their finished products.
With this aim they had changed agrarian economy to produce food-grains and cash crops to meet the British needs as also the rural areas could have money to be able to purchase their finished goods. This could be done only after the barter system was replaced by currency.
Thus, they had commercialized the agricultural sector. In this way the economic life of the society was not only interfered with but also had been transformed to sub-verse British metropolitan interests. Contrary to it, the British were very cautious about interference in the socio- religious affairs. They preferred not only neutrality but also encouragement to the old beliefs to have the confidence of the religious leaders.
It was this caution which obtained grants to the indigenous education and opposition to missionaries’ activities. In 1793 when the renewal of the Charter of the Company was approved, the Parliament could not be convinced by the leader of the missionaries Wilberforce to impose missionary responsibilities upon the Court of Directors.
Contrary to it, the Governor-General promised while promulgating Regulations of 1793 to “preserve the laws of the Shastra and the Koran, and to protect the natives of India in the free exercise of their religion”. Since the social life in India was regulated almost exclusively by these religious leaders it simply meant non-interference in social affairs as well.
The continuance of classical language and policy of non-interference meant the tolerance to the decedent urban society where the women had been “condemned to a life-long prison, a helpless, prostrate and pathetic figure, with enfeebled health, her naturally keen sense dulled through inaction, without the light of knowledge illuminating her vision, steeped in ignorance and prejudice, groping in the dark—a martyr to the conventions of the society in which she had been born”.
Sanction to the society in which the sudras were segregated and deprived of all the human freedom. Lord Wellesley, however, pursued a policy of his own. It was he who appointed William Carey at Fort William College and personally subscribed £ 800 to the building of a Church at Serampur, subsidizing to the translation of the Christian scriptures into Indian languages “to give the learned natives access to the sacred fountain of divine truth.”
Though checked in their curbed activities, but succeeded in the aim that “natives” be “enlightened to go ahead with their new ideas about society”. It also enabled the missionaries to obtain an edge over the Company. The Charter Act of 1813 accepted missionary argument to adopt a policy of promoting religious and moral improvement.
It was their activities which have been gratified by D.P. Mukherjee in these words:
“All are agreed that India entered into a lease of life in the nineteenth century. The spirit of vitality came from the West through various channels like commerce and trade, increased facilities for communication, Western learning, administration, unity etc.
For the first time historians arrest, an alien civilization infringed upon every detail of Indian life, changed its patterns and created new values. Thus India’s wealth ceased to become treasure; money became capital, goods became commodities, land became a source of monopoly—rent, and the self-sufficiency of rural economy was transformed into the interdependence of urban and world economy.
Similarly, the vision of the average Indian, so long closed like that of a frog in the well, was enlarged. ..The broad march of the English Constitution, the glory of the French Revolution, the finality of the American War of Independence, the romance of the Italian, and the cold, ruthless realism of the German unity brought enlightenment into the dark nooks of the Indian minds thus for denied of any sense of history and politics.
At the same time, Western philosophy and science introduced reason into daily habits and made Indians realize the meaningless of many ancient customs and privileges”. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of such “enlightened natives”.
3. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833):
Born in 1772 in a very orthodox Brahmin family at Radhanagar (Bengal), Raja Ram Mohun Roy acquired a thorough knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic at the tender age of sixteen. Sufism and Koran influenced his thought significantly and caused a break with family for 3 or 4 years. Away from the house, he studied the religious beliefs and social life of the people.
His study of Hebrew, Greek and English enabled him to penetrate in the Christian teachings as well. After his father’s death in 1803, he joined the Company Administration. By his hard work and intelligence he rose to the highest post of Dewan, then available to the Indians. After amassing a moderate fortune, he left the service in 1814.
The rest of nineteen years of his life he earnestly devoted in the social cause and earned for himself the title of Father of Modern India. His greatest contribution was for uplift of women and advancement of modern education. His biographer, Sophia D. Collet rightly says that “Ram Mohan stands in history as the living bridge over which India marches from her unmeasured past to her incalculable future.
He was the arch which spanned the gulf that yawned between ancient caste and modern humanity, between superstition and science, between despotism and democracy, between immobile custom and a conservative progress, between…polytheism and…theism”.
4. Crusade against Orthodoxy:
After his thorough study of various religions, the Raja had become quite conscious of the degrading condition of Hindu society. To him, the decadence of the religion was due to ignorance of their Shasta’s. He was convinced that the contemporary Hinduism was but a modern growth; its prevalent form was corrupt, in comparison with the much exalted philosophical religion of the ancient Rishis.
The Raja realized that the society could not advance unless its religion was purged of corrupt and debased customs. Instead of organizing a resistance he wisely thought of first educating the people to understand the need of reforms. He resorted to holding friendly discussions and debates, publishing tracts, treatises and translation of the true ancient literature.
By this method, “he always hoped to establish pure Brahma worship through the sacred books of all the nations of the world.” He himself wrote as an introduction to the Vedanta that the “greater part of Brahmins, as well as of other sects of Hindus, are quite incapable of justifying the idolatry which they continue to practice. When questioned on the subject, in place of adducing reasonable arguments in support of their conduct, they conceive it fully sufficient to quote their ancestors.”
By his writings and debates he disclosed that the universal truth was stressed in different ways and different accents. It was not, he argued, the preserve of Brahmanism and Sanskrit. He was enthusiastic to educate the Indian society about which he was convinced, as one author says that; The Vedanta, which had restored him to faith, he always considered as strongest in Jnana, the knowledge of the unity of all souls and of the world in Brahma.
Islam, which had given him his early iconoclastic zeal, he considered it strongest in the sense of divine government, and a militant of man; and Christianity, which gave him the divine example, he considered as strongest in the ethical and social guidance to peace and happiness in the path of life.
By his writings he exposed the shallowness of the orthodox society. The orthodox leaders had also tried to counteract their criticism by putting their own viewpoint. It led to a great debate and finally resulted in social reforms of great importance.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in bringing about a number of social reforms. He sought the help of the British government to abolish or discourage worthless and unsocial customs. He opposed Sati, condemned polygamy and child-marriage and advocated widow remarriage.
Applauding the contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy once scholar has said,”He was the first Indian who could understand where the weakness lay, he located it and discovered the means of removing it and then started a gigantic process of reforming the whole structure of India (social, political, economic or religious). No one before him was seen, traversing on such a vast and varied field of action.”
According to Seal, the Raja was “the harbinger of the idea of universal humanism, pure and simple, watching from his conning tower, the procession of universal humanity in universal historyâ€
According to Miss Colet “Ram Mohan stand in history as the living bridge over which India marches on her unmeasured part to her incalculable future. He was the arch which spanned the gulf between ancient caste and modern humanity, between superstition and science, between despotism and democracy, between immobile custom and conservative progress, between a bewildering polytheism and a pure if vague theism.”
Prof. Nandlal Chatterjee has described Raja as “the human link between the unfading past and dawning future, between vested conservatism and radical reform, between superstitious isolationism and progressive synthesis in short, between reaction and progress.”
5. Revival and Progress of Brahmo Samaj:
The premature death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1833 gave a severe set-back to the Brahmo Samaj and its progress was greatly checked due to proper organization and leadership. However after Maharishi Devendra Nath Tagore joined the Samaj in 1843 it made great progress. Another prominent leader who rendered great service to the popularization of Brahmo Samaj was Keshav Chandera Sen.
These leaders and members were inclined to establish reason than mysticism in the religious faith. The younger members of the Samaj were more radical and enthusiastic. Their leader Keshab Chandra Sen demanded that the members of the Samaj must renounce the sacred thread and oppose the monopoly of thread-bearing Brahmin to the priesthood.
They also preached inter-caste marriage. Their ideas proved to be a complete break with the past which were disliked by the moderates led by Tagore. The younger members, therefore.’ broke with Brahmo Samaj.
6. Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj:
Keshab Chandra Sen, in 1868, founded the new organisation, Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj. The new Samaj was to spread radical views for complete social transformation. Slater has summarised their attempt thus; “While Ram Mohan’s theism was more distinctively Christian, and Debendranath Tagore’s more exclusively Hindu, that of Kashab Chandra Sen aimed at comprehensiveness. The future church, he said, was to harmonise prevailing system of worship, and “the purer elements of the leading creeds of the day, he developed and shaped under the influence of Christianity.”
It were their efforts which resulted in civil marriage —a step which was the first successful assault on casteism and degradation of womanhood. He founded an All India Association for spreading the ideals of the Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj. In this way, it was also a great step towards integration of different people in different parts of the country into one association and paved the way for future national movements.
This radical Samaj, however, met with the tragedy of hypocracy of a middle class emerged as a link between the imperialists and the people. The radical had already got alienated themselves from orthodox and illiterate masses. This leader of the radicals, K.C. Sen wanted to use the forum more for raising his own status.
He tried to be considered avtar—quite contradictory to the principled for which the Samaj stood. Above all, he had “to eat (his) own words when it came to (his) own private life.” He married his daughter at the age of 14 to a prince, aged 15, of Cooch Behar strictly in accordance with the orthodox Hindu rites. It was this hypocracy which was to be the greatest obstacle in the way of implementing social reforms of radical nature in India.
The radicals broke relations with Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj to found their own Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. It was this tendency of splitting for self-interests which set the pattern for the future leaders and harmed the social interests to a larger extent.
The Brahmo Samaj, however continued to play a significant role since it tried to bring about reforms rather than breaking with the Indian traditions and not ignoring the emergence of various interests in the political formation of the country.
They had ” clearly perceived that the religion was behind the time, and, as a social institution, could not stand long against Christianity”, but they could not live with respects after breaking completely from their own religion “to lose caste, that is, to become estranged from all relations, friends and acquaintances.”
It was this reason that those organisations which held ideas much ahead of the time could not withstand those organisations which were nearer to the ideas of transitory society. These types of Organisations were Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission which survived the British rule, whereas the Bhartiya Brahmo Samaj, Sadharan Brahmo Samaj reduced to non-entity to bring about any social change and rather became a “club”.
The Western education had developed nationalist feeling as well. The radicals were not even having courage to break with the past. The moderators, therefore, thought that both radicalism and Occidentalism were not fit for the Indian society. Time and again they had stressed the high stage of civilization the Indian society had attained.
Even Keshab Chandra Sen, the unchallenged leader of the radicals in 1868, had said that “England sits at the feet of hoary- ‘leaded India to study the ancient literature of this country. All Europe seems to be turning her attention in these days towards Indian antiquities, to gather the priceless treasures which lie buried in the literature of Vedism and Buddhism. Thus while we learn modern science from England, England learns ancient wisdom from India.”
The Indo-phils were more vocal and they wanted to revive the pure social system prevailed in the Vedic age. An ardent Brahmo samajist, Bipin Chandra pal had to admit; “In our ardent admiration for Europe, our highest patriotic efforts, however, more or less neglected and ignored the activities of Indian life and situation.
Our patriotism was, therefore, naturally more destructive. And the necessary result was that our highest patriotic activities in the field of religion…(and) social .. reconstruction, were without that historic strength and vitality to them. The very exuberance of this patriotism was bound to bring on a violent reaction, and it came presently in the shape of a Strong social and religious revival.”
7. Arya Samaj:
The Arya Samaj was one of such organisations of the “revivalists”. It was founded in 1857 in Bombay. It became the vehicle of all those ambitious people who liked to counteract not only the Christian missionaries and the “radicals” but also other missionaries. It got ready attraction from the large number of people.
It enrolled a gigantic membership of 92,000 by 1901. Arya Samaj aimed at re-establishing Vedic social system. To them, “God is the primary cause of all true knowledge” and “The Vedas are the book of knowledge.” Its founder Swami Dayanand Saraswati staunchly believed that, “in matters of religion and in the domain of spirit the Western mind has not reached either the depths or the heights commanded by the ancient Indian mind; and in such matters it has still much to learn from the ancient Indian sages.”
The social system framed “in ancient times are as good, as sound and as effective, at least, as are those arrived at in the West by the latest modern thought.” Therefore, Swami Dayanand preached that the salvation of the Indian society lay in the “Back to the Vedas”.
Though it was not communal but it was narrow in approach which contributed in the emergence of communal organisations and helped British to keep the Indian society divided.
Swami Dayanand was rigid in his approach. Who differed with him, for example, he commented upon the Brahmo Samajist that “they are not good in all respects. How can the principles of those who are unaware of the Vedic lore be all good. ? They saved many men from the clutches of Christianity, they removed idolatory also to a certain extent, and they protected people from the snares of certain spurious scriptures.
These are all good points (to which the Arya Samajist also adhered to). But they are lacking in patriotism. They have borrowed much from Christianity in their ways of living. They have also changed the rules of marriage, etc. Instead of praising their country and glorifying their ancestors, they speak ill of them.
In their lecture they eulogies Christians and Englishmen. They do not mention the names of the old sages, Brahma etc. But they say that there was never a learned man like the English people from the very creation of the world, that Indians have all along remained ignorant, and that they never made any progress.
Not only do they not respect the Vedas, etc., but they do not desist from condemning them. The books of the Brahmo Samaj include among the saints Christ, Moses, Muhammad, Nanak and Chaitanya. They do not mention even the names of the rishis and sages of ancient India. This shows that their religion also derives its contents from the prophets who have been mentioned in their books.”
This was not in consonance to the different religions which had existed and prospered under the Indian society’s spirit of toleration. In his Satyaratha Prakasha, Swamiji made uncritical remarks on other religions. The Arya Samaj stood for shuddhi i.e., purification of those who have been misled out of Vedic religion; and the sangathan i.e., to develop the solidarity among the Aryas.
(The members of the Arya Samaj were called Aryas.) It estranged relations between the Aryas and others especially non Hindus. “The Arya Samaj, being a Vedic Church and as such a Hindu organisation,” wrote Lajpat Rai, “engages in the work of reclaiming those who have left Hindu society, and it converts everyone who is prepared to accept its religious teachings.
In his work it comes into direct conflict with the proselytizing work of Mussulman Mullah and the Christian missionary; the Mussulman fanatic and the Christian zealot hate it, but even the sober-minded Moulvis and the broad-minded Christians do not like it.
Yet it has met with considerable success in reclaiming Hindus converted to other faiths, and in stemming the tide of conversion of Hindus to other faiths. But its greatest success lies in raising the social status of the depressed classes among the Hindus and preventing them from leaving Hinduism and joining other religious denominations.”
Though the Arya Samaj condemned the traits—idolatry, animal sacrifices, ancestor worship, pilgrimages, priest craft, offerings in temples, the caste system, untouchability, child marriages—which had become the exploiting institutions and degenerated the society, but its stress was more on revivalism.
The approach of the society was still static. Even a reclaimed member could not have the status. (For example, the sudra converted and reclaimed is still treated as sudra). This was not the solution of the problem emerged with generations’ development. The fanatic, referred to by Lajpat Rai himself, could easily be put by the foreign government against them.
It did happen, and the revivalism had set in other religions as well. Since religion and politics were two faces of the coin in the Indian society, it was this revivalist tendency which became the strength of political movements and resulted in the emergence of “two-nation theory”.
Therefore, the task of reformation got side-tracked and the independence inherited casteism, untouchability, fanaticism and low opinion about the womenfolk.
8. Rama Krishna Mission:
The Rama Krishna Mission was founded by Vivekananda in the memory of his Guru Ram Krishna Paramhans in 1896, with the objective of spreading the Indian culture throughout the world. With this objective in mind he attended the Parliament of Religions first at Chicago in 1893 and then at Paris in 1900.
It the Chicago Parliament of Religions he so much impressed the Americans with his eloquence and talent of exposition that he was described by the American Press as “an orator by divine right”, and the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions.
Vivekananda preached the massage of peace, universal brotherhood and religious toleration to the western people. He paid a number of visits to U.S.A., England and other continental countries and delivered a series of lectures.
He also set up certain missionary centres in these countries, the most prominent of these being the Vedant Society at San Francisco. He also founded a sect of Sanyasis, or monks.
It may be noted that Vivekananda was the first Indian preacher of the Vedant in the western world. He gave a living interpretation of Hinduism which won the admiration of the world for its greatness.
It was because of his bold proclamations regarding the superiority of the Hindu culture at the various world gatherings that the Hindus shed their attitude of apology and inferiority of the Indian culture vis-a-vis the western culture and civilization.
He raised the prestige of India in the eyes of the world and has rightly earned the title of the ‘patriot saint Of India’. Prof. Romaine Rolland, commenting about Vivekananda says “The man whose image I here invoke was the consummation of the thousand years of the spiritual life of three hundred million people. Although he has been dead for years, his soul animates modern India.”
Applauding the contributions of Vivekananda, Sarkar and Dutta say “Vivekananda impressed on the minds of the people the greatness and universality of much of the ancient thought of their country and thus served to awaken in them a keen desire for national regeneration on the basis of the best in the past.
Sister Nivedita also writes about Vivekananda in her book ‘The Master as I saw Him’: “Throughout those years in which I saw him almost daily, the thought of India was to him like the air he breathed. True, he was a worker at foundations. He never used the word ‘nationality’ nor proclaimed an era ‘nation-making’. ‘Man- making’, she said, was his own task. But he was born a lover and the queen of his adoration was his motherland….He was hard on his sins, unsparing on his want of wordily wisdom, but not because he felt these faults to be his own. And none, on the contrary, was ever saw possessed by the vision of his greatness.”
The Rama Krishna Mission set up by Vivekananda has branches not only in different parts of the country, but also in various foreign lands. Through these branches it has done a splendid and monumental humanitarian and social service by undertaking numerous humanitarian activities such as opening dispensaries, establishing schools, colleges, libraries and orphanages.
9. Theosophical Society:
The Theosophical Society which believed in the unity of all the religions and abhorred all caste and class distinctions, was founded by the Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott in 1875 in the United States.
Both the founders shifted to India and established the headquarter of the Society at Adyar near Madras. Although initially the society was concerned with the study of the universe and did not aim at revival of Hinduism, but in course of time it adopted it as one of its objectives.
Mrs. Annie Besant, an Irish women, who came to India in 1893 and settled down in this country, made valuable contributions towards the popularity and the growth of this Society.
She explained the mission of the society in India in the following words :
“The Indian work is, first of all, the revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient religions – Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and in Ceylon and Burma, Buddhism. This brought with it a new self-respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the future, and as an inevitable result, a great wave of a patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding of a nation.”
Pandit Nehru also held that Annie Besant “was a powerful influence in adding to the confidence of Hindu middle classes in their spiritual and national heritage.”
Mrs. Annie Besant, while making an appeal to the patriotism once said “India now stands on this—her resurrection morning, the immortal, the glorious, the even young India shall soon be seen, proved and self-reliant, strong and free, the radiant splendorer of Asia; as ‘the light and benediction of the world’.
Dr. Annie Besant gave a powerful interpretation of the wisdom contained in the Upanishads, the Gita, the Epics, the Puranas, the Smritis ant the Dharama Shastras and “made the world recognize the spiritual greatness of India and the value of the Hidden Treasures of the eastern religions —Hinduism and Buddhism”.
The Theosophical Society, particularly Dr. Annie Besant also rendered valuable service in the political as well as social fields. In the political sphere she assisted in the establishment of the Indian National Congress as well as popularising the Home Rule and Swadeshi Movements.
In the social sphere she proposed social reforms like abolition of child-marriage, pardah, illiteracy and drinking. It campaigned for the education of women and introduction of moral and religious instructions in the educational institutions. The Society was largely responsible for the various social and religious reforms carried out in the South.
10. Radha Swami Satsang:
This sect was started by Shri Shiva Dayal Khattri in 1851 with Dayalgagh Agra as its headquarter. However, it was systematized and given proper ideology by the second Guru Saligram Sahib Bahadur, also known as Hazoor Maharaj.
Saligram Sahib Bahadur was a government servant in the Postal Department and spent major portion of his income on Satsang. He wrote Sar Updesh, Nij Upadesh and Prem Updesh, which represent the teachings of this sect. The followers of Radhaswami Satsang attach too much importance to the Guru because they believe that Supreme Being manifests itself in the world through Sadhu Guru.
The followers do not recognize any temples, shrines or sacred places—except those which have been sanctified by the presence of the Guru or his relics. The Radha Swami Satsang is a sort of synthesis of the Bhakti and Yoga It believes that all the religious sects are one and true.
The sect played an important role in the national and cultural regeneration by religious awakening as well as establishment of educational institutions and social service centres.
In addition to the above religious movements certain other religious movements also gained currency in different parts of the country and deserve a mention. These include the Deva Samaj founded by Satyanand Agnihotri in 1887 at Lahore ; Sanatan Dharma Rakshini Sabha founded by a group of Hindus in Calcutta in 1883 ; the Madhva Sidhanta Unnayini Sabha founded by the Madhavas of South in 1887 ; the Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartak Sabha established by the Vaishnavas in 1806 ; Bharat Dharma Mahamandal of Banaras formed for the defence of the orthodox Hinduism. Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya was closely associated with this Mandala.
All these religious movements drew their inspiration from the ancient Indian culture. They were based on true principles of Hinduism and tried to purge it of superstitions, orthodoxy and other social evils. They pleaded against external formalities of religion and laid emphasis on the spirit of religious toleration.
They also generated in the heart of the Indians love for their country, culture and religion and thus contributed to the growth of national consciousness.
11. Religious and Social Movements of the Muslims:
During the British rule Muslim society had also degenerated. Though the Muslims did not believe in distinctions of caste and untouchability, certain social evils like child marriage, polygamy and purdah had come to be practiced by them.
Even certain superstitions had crept into their religion and society. Taking inspiration from the religious movement of the Hindus, the Muslim also made efforts to reform their society. The initiative in this regard was taken by the disciples of Mohammed Abdul Wahab of Arabia which included Shah Abdul Aziz, Saiyid Ahmad of Bareli, Shaikh Karamat Ali and Haji Sharaya tullah.
Shah Abdul Aziz was in favour of basing the Muslim custom and practices on Quran. Saiyid Ahmad of Bareli tried to purge the Muslim society of social evils like superstitions and rituals.
He was against the worship of pirs or saints and stood for the unity of God-head. He also encouraged communal feeling by encouraging the Muslims in India to carry on crusade against the non-Muslims. Shaikh Karamat Ali’s movement was peaceful and religious in character.
He encouraged the Indian Muslims to adopt western ideology and education. Towards the closing years of the nineteenth century another Muslim movement made its appearance viz .the Ahmadiya Movement. This movement was initiated by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed of Qadian in the Gurdaspur District.
This movement was opposed to the missionary activities of Arya Samaj and Christianity, as well as the efforts of Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan to westernize the Muslim community.
The most important movement which revolutionized the Muslim society, education and religion was the one launched by Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898). He pleaded for free intercourse between the Europeans and the Muslims and tried to get the Muslim society rid of social evils and superstitions. He was particularly opposed to pardah and slavery and stood for the emancipation of women.
To popularize these ideas amongst the Indian Muslims Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan started a monthly periodical entitled Tahzib-ul- Akhlaq (Reform of Morals).
Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan favoured the promotion of English education amongst the Muslims. He tried to impress on them that they could make progress only by studying modern education and science.
He himself went to England and on his return asked the Muslims to adopt the good points of the Western civilization. He pleaded for imparting education to the women and encouraged the abolition of pardah system.
These liberal views of Sir Saiyid Ahmad Khan were initially severely criticised, but ultimately he succeeded in affecting a change in the social, religious and political outlook of the Muslims. In 1875 he founded the Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, which grew into Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.
Certain other minor Muslim movements were -also launched, which aimed at reforming the Muslim community. These included the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam set up at Lahore in 1885, which made valuable contribution to the educational, social, political and intellectual development of the Muslims.
In 1894 Navakhat-ul-Ulema was established in Lucknow to get the Muslim community rid of social evils. In North Western Frontier Province of India Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan started a movement known as Khudai Khidmat gar, which fostered the feeling of brotherhood among the Muslims.
Similarly, Inayatmulla Khan started Khaksar movement which emphasized the need of discipline and military training amongst the Muslims.
12. Movements Amongst Other Sects:
The members of the other sects did not lack behind the Muslims or the Hindus and launched movements for their purification.
In 1851 the enlightened leaders of the Parsi community founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (The Religious Reform Association) to reform their creed and society. They started a weekly journal Rast-Guftar for the same purpose.
To acquaint the people with the real teachings of Zoroaster, two institutions were set up where the priests got training. They also undertook the study of the Parsi scripture Avesta in a scientific manner.
The Parsis also adopted the English education and manners. Some Parsi leaders devoted attention towards the improvement of the lot of the children and women. Seva Sadan was set up by B.M. Malabari, which did commendable social welfare work.
The other prominent Parsi leaders who made valuable contribution to the social, political and economic progress of the country included Dada bhai Naoroji, Sir Phirozshah Mehta, Sir Din Shaidulji etc.
The Sikhs also did not remain immune from the influence of reform movements in other religions. They also tried to purify their sect and society. They created the Chief Khalsa Dewan, a central association with a view to purify the Sikh life and to strengthen the Sikh community.
At the local levels Singh Sabhas (local Assemblies) were set up with the same objective in view. To get rid of the corrupt Mahants the Sikhs set up the Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.
All these reform movements amongst the various sects provided a fillip to various social reforms. In this task certain private individuals, non-religious movements and even the British government played a significant role. It shall be desirable to refer to some of the prominent social reforms effected.
13. Abolition of Slavery:
Islam had recognized the institution of slavery and we come across even the slave dynasty which ruled India. Though Hindu society did not recognize the slavery, the sudra was worst than a slave.
Secondly the poverty had many a times forced parents to sell their children in times of scarcity—a horrible crime to the humanity to which we get a reference in newspapers these days as well.
The children were purchased to use their innocence by the unscrupulous who exploited the benevolent nature of the people. The rich farm and commercial people also purchased them to have a “faithful” servant with no regular payment. But this type of slavery was different to the commonsense about slavery.
O’Malley’s explanation of slavery is quite clear: “The ideas of slavery borrowed from our American colonies, will make every modification of it appear in the eyes of our countrymen in England a horrible evil. But it is far otherwise in this country ; here slaves are treated as children of the families to which they belong and often acquire a much happier state by their slavery than they could have hoped for by the enjoyment of liberty.” History tells us that “slaves” even assumed the highest post of sovereign.
After the British Parliament abolished slave trade in 1807, the institution of slavery came under severe attacks. The British Government went all out to bring an end to slavery and got this principle accepted by the Vienna Congress.
In that context, Lord Cornwallis had already, in 1789, forbidden the sale and purchase of children. In 1811, import of slaves was declared illegal. Though the British made all the efforts but they had to reconcile by not providing legal recognition to slavery.
And we are still aware of the fact that children are still duped by the unscrupulous who invest in “beggery” and Government is making efforts to eliminate “bounded labour”. It however, developed conscience to human equality long ago forgotten by the Indian society
14. Emancipation of Women:
Indian women were condemned to sub-citizenship by resorting to infanticide and sati, as also thugee and anti-social acts which were rampant in the society. The crusade started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the consequent debate thereupon offered an opportunity to the British Government to interfere in social affairs. Their combined efforts brought social reforms of importance.
15. Prevention of Female Infanticide:
As discussed, though religion had not sanctioned the killing of human beings in any form, “the laws which regulate carriage among the Rajputs promote (female) infanticide. Not only is intermarriage prohibited between families of the same clan (klaap), but between those of the same tribe (gota)”.
The false pride prevented them to give their daughters to other clan. Thus, this practice was rampant in Rajput and Kulin families. Though Mount Elphinston, the then Governor of Bombay cautioned about the consequences to interference in the internal affairs of native states, the crusade against superstitions gradually reduced the number of such female killing. In any case, public opinion was set strongly against such social practice.
16. Abolition of Sati:
This public opinion was created on the question of sati. As mentioned earlier, the wives, especially of kulin families, used to immolate themselves on the funeral pyre of their deceased husbands. She would then be called a sati, faithful wife, and would be honoured for her choice.
This practice had, however, degenerated into superstition and the society did not permit a widow to live honourably. Though the Mughal Emperor Akbar and his noble; took pains to avoid forcible sati, it was the social environment which had become a burden to society.
The digest of Hindu Law, prepared with encouragement of Warren Hastings defined “No other effectual duty is known for virtuous women at any time after the deaths of their lords, except casting themselves into the same fire. If a woman in her successive transmigration declines doing so, she should not be exempt from shrinking again to life in the body of some female animal.”
It was this interpretation which discouraged the Government to interfere and put a stop on the practice ; and a psychological fear even to the doubters. But the crusaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy had created a public sympathy against sati practice and helped William Bentick to complete that task which was augmented by Akbar.
It was because of this public sympathy that in response to an enquiry about the response of the soldiers towards abolition of this sati practice, only 5 were opposed to interference. 12 were favourably inclined, while 32 stood for total abolition. Consequently William Bentick, by his Act of 1829 declared the practice of sati as illegal and was to be dealt with criminal cases at par.
All the zamindars, native officers and others who had been a link between the Government and the masses were made responsible for reporting if any sati was practised in their areas.
Though it cannot be said that the practice was eliminated but it were the efforts of these social reformers that the society had started thinking just opposite to the views they held earlier. It was this age of social reforms which raised the standard of womenfolk and they could also be treated as human beings in Indian society.
Greater attention was paid towards the education of women- In 1849 the first Hindu Girls School was opened at Calcutta. With in a span of eight years of the opening of the first Girls School about 100 Government Girls Schools were opened.
Other bodies like the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Theosophical Society, Servants of India Society etc. also encouraged the women to receive education. In 1914 facilities for the training of the nurses and mid-wives were provided.
Two years later Lady Hardinge Medical College was opened at Delhi. Special attention was paid to the improvement of the lot of the women belonging to the depressed classes.
The spread of education among the woman led to their awakening and they started discarding pardah system, an evil prevailing in India since the Muslim rule. Almost all these women, with the exception of the Muslim women, gave up pardah.
17. Upliftment of the Depressed Classes:
Due to the rigours of the caste system the people of the lower castes were not well- treated and were despised by the members of other castes. In view of the inhuman treatment meted to them the members of these depressed classes embraced Christianity.
This alarmed the Hindu social reformers and they paid special attention to the improvement of the lot of depressed classes. The Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj,The Theosophical Society etc.
Actually worked for the upliftment of the members of the depressed classes. Swami Dayanand, the founder of Arya Samaj actually re-converted a number of members of these castes to Hinduism.
In 1905 the Depressed Classes Society of India was formed with the objective of improving the social and spiritual condition of the members of the depressed classes. The society was to make efforts to provide work to the members, remedy the social disabilities, preach principles of liberal religion and personal character and good citizenship.
The most valuable contribution to the improvement of the let of the Harijans was made by Mahatma Gandhi. He started a weekly paper entitled. The Harijans, which constantly propagated the measures for the improvement of their condition. Many schools were started where the Harijians received education.